语法讲义（共7篇）
重点语法讲义及练习题目
1. 动词的时态和语态
1．1 动词的时态和语态一览表
时态语态 一般现在时 一般过去时 一般将来时
主动被动 doare done didwere done will dowill be done
现在进行时 过去进行时 将来进行时
主动被动 are doingare being done were doingwere being done will be doing
现在完成时 过去完成时 将来完成时
主动 被动 have donehave been done had donehad been done will have donewill have been done
现在完成进行时
主动 被动 have been doing
1.2 动词主要时态的意义及运用
1) 现在完成时，过去完成时和将来完成时
英语提示语：up to now, so far, for three years, since 1995, over past ten years, by the end of this week, by the year of 1995
汉语提示语：已经，早已，了
e.g. We haven’t met each other since last year.
By the end of this week, we’ll have finished the task.
2) 现在完成进行时
从过去一直持续到现在，没有间断，重点语法讲义及练习。
汉语提示语：一直
e.g. The water has been running the whole night.
3) 过去完成时
a) said, reported, thought 等引导的间接引语中。
e.g. He missed the train. He said he had missed the train.
b) hardly…when, no sooner… than
e.g. No sooner had he got up than he received the call.
c) 与过去事实相反的虚拟语气的'条件状语从句中
e.g. If I had tried harder, I would have won.
I wish I had done better in the exam.
历年考题中的动词时态和语态
1. Much of the carbon in the earth ___ (come) from things that once lived.
2. In the past two decades, research ___ (expand) our knowledge about sleep and dream.
3. Some proverbs ___ (be) in the language for 1,000 years, for example, A friend in need is a friend indeed.
4. ___ (stand) at the gate was a young man in green coat.
5. In 1991, after the Gulf War, Bush’s approved rating reached 91 percent, the highest level recorded since polling ___ (begin) in the 19302.
6. Seeing violence on television or reading about it in the newspapers every day ___ (make) us tolerate crime more than we should.
7. So far, Irving ___ (live) in New York City for ten years.
8. The patient ___ (send) to another hospital before we got there.
9. The second half of the nineteenth century ___ (witness) the first extended translation into English of the writings of Eliphas Levi.
10. All the worries they might have felt for him ___ (drive) off by the sight of his cheerful face.
Key:
1. comes 一般现在时，主语为不可数名词，谓语用单数
2. has expanded 现在完成时
3. has been 现在完成时
4. Standing 过去进行时的倒装形式
5. began 一般过去时
6. makes 一般现在时，动名词做主语，谓语用单数
7. has been living 现在完成进行时
8. had been sent 过去完成时的被动形式
9. witnessed 一般过去时
10. were driven 一般过去时的被动
2. 非谓语动词
2.1 动词主要时态和语态一览表
非谓语动词 形式 意义
现在分词
一 般 式 Doing 主动, 正在进行
被 动 式 being done 被动, 正在进行
完成主动式 having done 主动, 已经完成
完成被动式 having been done 被动, 已经完成
过去分词 Done 被动, 已经完成
动词不定式
一 般 式 To do 主动,将要进行
被 动 式 To be done 被动, 将要进行
完成主动式 To have done 主动, 已经完成
进行主动式 To be doing 主动, 正在进行
2.2. 非谓语动词作状语
动词不定式：
篇2：职称英语理工类B级语法复习讲义
一般现在时
结构形式：
动词be除3：语法是什么
时态
时态（tense）是一种动词形式，不同的时态用以表示不同的'时间与方式。动词时态是表示行为、动作和状态在各种时间条件下的动词形式。因此，当我们说时态结构的时候，指的是相应时态下的动词形式。
篇4：语法
语法
语法yǔ fǎ[释义]①（名）语言的结构方式；包括词的构成和变化、词组和句子的组织。
②（名）语法研究。
[构成] 偏正式：语（法[例句] 学～。（作宾语）篇5：英语语法讲义
英语语法讲义
主谓一致之一
主谓一致的问题看上去似乎很简单，其实使用起来却不是那么容易，有时候甚至很复杂。
这是因为在不同情况下，处理这一问题所依据的原则各不相同。就其在现代语法中的基本原则而言，通常有三个不同角度的着眼点：1、语法一致 2、意义一致 3、就近原则。
主谓一致的原则是指，主语和谓语从语法形式上取得一致：主语是单数形式，谓语也采取单数形式；主语是复数形式，谓语亦采取复数形式。例如：
A grammar book helps you learn something about the rules of a language.
（主语是单数形式，谓语也采取单数形式）
语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则。
Grammar books help you learn something about the rules of a language.
（主语是复数形式，谓语也采取复数形式）
语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则。
主语和谓语从语法形式上取得一致的问题远不只上述的那么简单，有许多方面的情况需要去具体地对待：
#不定式、动名词、以及从句作主语时应看作单数，谓语动词用单数。例如：
Reading often means learning .读书常意味是学习。
To read English aloud every morning does you a lot of good.每天早晨朗读英语有许多好处。
What he said has been recorded .他说的话已被录音了。
##不定代词one, every, each, everybody, everyone, one of, no one, nothing, nobody, someone, somebody, either, neither, many a 等作主语或是修饰主语时应看作单数，谓语动词用单数。例如：
Neither of my sisters likes sports .我的妹妹中没人喜欢运动。
Many a student takes a walk on campus after dinner.许多学生晚饭后常在校园里散步。
Every boy and girl shows great interest in extra-curriculum activities .每个男孩和女孩对课外活动都表现出很大的兴趣。
### 表示国家、机构、事件、作品等名称的专有名词作主语时应看作单数，谓语动词用单数。例如：
One Thousand And One Nights tells people lots of mysterious bits of folklore .
《一千零一夜》给人们讲了许多神秘的民间传说。
The United States is leading the world in science and technology .
美国常在世界科技方面领先。
The United Nations play an important role in the international affairs .
联合国在国际事务中起着重要作用。
#### a portion, a series of, a kind of, the number of等与名词构成名词短语作主语时应看作单数，谓语动词用单数。例如：
A series of high technology products has been laid out in the exhibition. 一系列高科技产品已在展览上展出。
The number of printing mistakes in some recent books often surprises people even to death.
近来一些书籍里印刷错误的数量让人吃惊得要命。
A substantial portion of the reports is missing .这些报告都没有提及实质问题。
A kind of rose in the garden smells very pleasant.这座花园里有一种玫瑰香气怡人。
##### 由some, several, both, few, many, a number of 等词修饰主语、或是由它们自身作主语时应看作复数，谓语动词用复数。另外，由and连接两个主语时，谓语一般用复数。例如：
On the seashore, some people are playing volleyball and some are lying in the sun. 海边，有些人在打排球，有些人躺着晒太阳。
Both of us are fond of watching football games .我们俩都喜欢看足球赛。
A number of will-be graduates are voluntarily going to work in the West of China. 许多即将毕业的学生打算自愿去中国西部工作。
###### 有些短语，如：a lot of, most of, any of, half of , three fifths of, eighty percent of, some of, none of, the rest of , all of等后接不可数名词、或是单数形式的名词作主语时应看作单数，谓语动词用单数；但如果后接可数名词的复数形式作主语时应看作复数，谓语动词用复数。例如：
A lot of money in the shop was stolen yesterday when the electricity was suddenly cut off. 昨天突然断电时，那家商店丢失了许多钱。
A lot of books about Investment Fund have been published recently.
最近出版了许多关于投资基金的书籍。
意义一致( Notional Concord )
这一原则是指，从意义着眼来解决主谓一致问题。有时主语形式上为单数，但意义上却是复数，那么谓语依意义也用复数形式；而有时主语形式上为复数，但意义上却是单数，那么谓语依意义亦用单数形式。
1） 当主语后面接由as well as, as much as, accompanied by, including, in addition to, more than,no less than, rather than, together with等引导的词组时，其谓语动词的形式要依主语的单复数而定。在这样的句子里，这些词所引导的词组不影响主语自身的单、复数形式，它们在句子里其实是状语。也就是说，我们完全可以将这些词组搬到句首或是放到句末去。从表面上我们也可以看出，它们与主语之间有“，”隔开。例如：
Petroleum, along with fuel gas, has recently risen in price.
最近石油和燃料煤气的价格上涨了。
The teacher, with all his students, is going to have a picnic this weekend.老师打算这个周末与学生们一起去野炊。
The students, together with their teacher , are going to have a picnic this weekend.学生们打算这个周末与他们的老师一起去野炊。
The warehouse, with all its stockings, was burned last night.
昨晚，那个仓库连同其所有的货物一起被烧毁了。
我们完全可以将上面句子中的那些词组都分别搬到句首或是放到句末去，因为它们在句子里是状语：
Petroleum has recently risen in price, along with fuel gas.
Along with fuel gas, petroleum has recently risen in price.
The students are going to have a picnic this weekend together with their teacher.
As well as the suitcase, the missing things have been found and returned to the owner.
The missing things have been found and returned to the owner, as well as the suitcase.
2) 表示时间、金钱、距离、体积、重量、面积、数字等词语作主语时，其意义若是指总量应看作单数，谓语动词用单数；但如果其意义是指“有多少数量”则应该看作是复数，那么谓语动词也应该用复数。例如：
Four weeks are often approximately regarded as one month.
人们常大约地将四个星期看成一个月。
Twenty years stands for a long period in one's life.
二十年在人的'一生里意味着一个很长的时期。
Eighty dollars are enough for a student to spend on food for one week.八十块钱给一个
高中英语语法-高中英语语法重点难点回顾之三
高中英语语法重点难点回顾之三
little,no,some, 等修饰。
I have read all the book (that) you gave me.
4)先行词被 the only, the very, the same, the last 修饰时。
He is the only person that I want to talk to.
5)先行词既有人又有物时。They talked of things and persons that they remembered in the school.
先行词是表示地点时,要根据从句的谓语动词是及物的还是不及物的。如果是及物的就用that(which),否则用where。
This is the house where he lived last year.
This is the house that (which) he visited last year.
用no sooner…than和hardly…when引导的从句表示“刚……就……”。主句中的动词一般用过去完成时,从句用过去时;而且主句一般倒装,把助动词had提到前面。例如：Hardly had I entered the room when I heard a loud noise.
代词作主语时,主谓语序不变。Here it is. Here he comes.
当句首状语为表示地点的介词词组时也常常引起全部倒装。
South of the city lies a big steel factory.
From the valley came a frightening sound.
表语置于句首时,倒装结构为“表语 连系动词 主语”。
Present at the meeting were Professor White,Professor Smith and many other guests.
Gone are the days when they could do what they liked to the Chinese people.
Among the goods are Christmas trees, flowers, candles and toys.
He has been to Beijing. So have I.
Li Wei can’t answer the question. Neither can I.
部分倒装
用于省略if的虚拟条件状语从句。Had you reviewed your lessons,you might have passed the examination.
3.用于“形容词(或名词、动词) as(though)引导的让步状语从句中。例如：Pretty as she is ,she is not clever.
Try as he would, he might fail again.
如果从句的表语是名词,其名词前不加任何冠词。
Child as he was, he had to make a living.
用于no sooner…than…,hardly…when和not until的句型中。Not until the teacher came did he finish his homework.
用于never,hardly,seldom,scarcely, barely, little,often,at no time,not only,not once等词开头的句子。
Never shall I do this again.
Little did he know who the woman was.
6.用于以only开头的句子(only修饰副词,介词短语或状语从句时)。Only this afternoon did I finish the novel.
Only in this way can you master English.
Only when he told me did I realize what trouble he was in.
如果only后面的词组不是状语,则不用倒装。
Only Wang Ling knows this.
用于某些表示祝愿的句子。May you succeed!祝你成功!
stomach－stomachs，a German－three Germans,
an American－two Americans，man cook - men cooks;
papers 报纸, 文件 manners礼貌 drinks饮料
in a word 简言之?in other words 换句话说
have words with 与某人吵嘴
have a few words (a word) with sb.与某人说几句话
The crowd were running for their lives．
某些集体名词, 如people, police, cattle等, 只当复数看待, 谓语动词必须用复数。The police are searching for him.
高中英语语法-高中英语语法重点难点回顾之二
高中英语语法重点难点回顾之二
d that she (should) stay in bed for a few days.
He demanded that we (should) start right away.
作advice,idea,order,demand,plan,proposal,suggestion,request等名词的表语从句和同位语从句,其谓语动词要用虚拟语气的结构“(should)＋动词原形”。例如：We all agreed to his suggestion that we(should) go to Beijing for sightseeing.
My idea is that we (should) do exercises first.
在feel, hear, notice, observe, see, watch, have, let, make等词后的补足语中,不定式不带to。但是这些句子如果变成被动结构时,就必须带to。例如：I often hear him sing the song.
He is often heard to sing the song.
注意：不定式动词在介词but, except, besides后面时,如果这些介词之前有行为动词do的各种形式,那么,这些介词后的不定式不带to,否则要带to.如：
She could do nothing but cry.
What do you like to do besides swim?
I have no choice but to go.
作定语的不定式如果是不及物动词,或者不定式所修饰的名词或代词是不定式动作的地点、工具等,不定式后面须有相应的介词。例如：He is looking for a room to live in.
There is nothing to worry about.
Please give me a knife to cut with.
There / It is no use/ good/ not any use/ good/ useless doing sth.
动词后可以用动名词作宾语,但不能用不定式:
admit,appreciate, avoid, consider, delay, enjoy, escape, excuse, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, imagine, include, keep, mention,mind,miss,practise, put off, resist, risk, suggest, can’t help, can’t stand(无法忍受)等。
I tried not to go there.(我设法不去那里。)
I tried doing it again.(我试着又干了一次。)]
mean to do 有意... mean doing意味着...
I mean to come early today.(我打算今天早些来。)
Missing the train means waiting for another hour.
(误了这趟火车意味着再等一个小时。)
allow, advise, forbid, permit
We don’t allow smoking here. We don’t allow students to smoke.
动词need,require,want作“需要”解,其后跟动词作它的宾语时,若表示的含义是被动的,必须用动名词,或不定式的被动式。例如：
The window needs(requires, wants)cleaning(to be cleaned).
在短语devote to, look forward to, pay attention to, stick to, be used to, object to,thank you for, excuse me for 等后的动词也必须用动名词形式：I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Badly polluted, the water cannot be drunk.(原因)
Being written in haste, the composition is full of mistakes.
(原因,强调写的过程,故应用现在分词一般被动式)
Having been deserted by his guide, he couldn’t find his way through the jungle.(为了强调已完成的动作)
Asked to stay, I couldn’t very well refuse.
这里 asked 可能意味着 having been asked, 也可能意味着when/since I was asked, 但用了 having been asked 就不会有歧义。
下面句中过去分词表示的时间与谓语动词所表示的时间相同，所以不能代之以强调先于谓语动词的现在分词完成被动式。例如：
Covered with confusion, I left the room.我很窘地离开了房间。
United, we stand; divided, we fall. 团结则存，分裂则亡。
He used to live in London, use(d)n’t he /didn’t he?
There used to be a cinema here before the war, use(d)n’t there /didn’t there?
Such things ought not to be allowed, ought they?
He ought to be punished, oughtn’t he?
但在正式文体中,用ought we not形式。例如:
We ought to go, ought we not?或We ought to go ,should we not?
含有情态动词must的句子表示推则,作“想必”解时,疑问部分不可用mustn’t。若前句强调对现在情况的推测,疑问部分用aren’t(isn’t)十主语,例如：You must be tired,aren’t you?若陈述部分的must表示“有必要”时,附加疑问句部分则用needn’t。例如：You must go home right now, needn’t you?
当mustn’t 表示禁止时,附加疑问部分一般用must。如：
You mustn’t walk on grass, must you?
前句谓语动词是must have＋过去分词时,若前句强调对过去情况的推测(一般有过去时间状语),疑问部分的谓语动词用didn’t＋主语;若前句强调动作的完成,疑问部分的谓语动词用haven’t(hasn’t)＋主语, 例如：
He must have met her yesterday, didn’t he?
You must have seen the film, haven’t you?
陈述句谓语部分出现否定词缀时(前缀或后缀),疑问部分仍用否定结构。例如:He is unfit for his office, isn’t he?
如果陈述部分包含有no, never, hardly, seldom, few, little,nowhere, nothing等否定或半否定词时,疑问部分用肯定形式。例如：He is hardly 14 years old,is he?
如果陈述部分的主语为everyone,someone,no one等不定代词,其疑问部分的主语可用he,也可用they。
Everyone knows his job, doesn’t he?
Everyone knows their job,don’t they?
No one was hurt,were they?
I’m late, aren’t I?
One can’t be too careful,can one(you)?
Have a cup of tea, will you?
Let’s go there,shall we? Let us go there,will you?
同位语从句跟在名词后面,进一步说明该名词的具体内容。引导同位语从句的名词主要有fact, news, promise, idea, truth等。连接词用that (不用which)及连接副词how, when, where, why等。例如：
His delay is due to the fact that the car went wrong halfway.
The news that our team has won the match is true.
She asked the reason why there was a delay.
关联词只能用whether不能用if表示“是否”的情况如下:
A)在表语从句和同位语从句中。例如：
The question is whether the film is worth seeing.
The news whether our team has won the match is unknown.
B)在主语从句中,只有用it作形式主语时,whether和if都能引导主语从句,否则,也只能用whether。例如：
Whether we shall attend the meeting hasn’t been decided yet.
It hasn’t been decided whether(if)we shall attend the meeting.
C)在介词之后。(介词往往可以省略)例如：
It all depends (on) whether they will support us.
D)后面直接跟动词不定式时。
He doesn’t know whether to stay or not.
E)后面紧接or not 时。
We didn’t know whether or not she was ready.
F)引导让步状语从句,只能用whether。
Whether you like it or not, you must do it well.
G)用if会引起歧义时。例如：Please let me know if you like it.
该句有两个意思：“请告诉我你是否喜欢”。
或“如果你喜欢,请告诉我。”用了whether就可以避免。
在下面几种情况下必须用“that”引导定语从句：
1)先行词是不定代词：all,few,little, much,something,nothing,anything等。All that we have to do is to practise every day.
2)先行词被序数词或形容词最高级所修饰。
The first lesson that I learned will never be forgotten.
3)先行词被all,any,every, each, few,
高中英语语法-高中英语语法重点难点回顾之一
高中英语语法重点难点回顾之一
主谓一致常考难题：
Five minutes is enough to do this exercise．
Each boy and each girl wants to serve the people in future．
More than one student has seen the film.
Many a ship has been damaged in the storm.
More members than one are against your plan.
一些有两个部分构成的名词表示衣物或工具作主语时, 谓语通常用复数形式：glasses, clothes, trousers, shoes, compasses, chopsticks, scissors等。
但如果主语用a kind of , a pair of , a series of等加名词构成时, 谓语动词一般用单数形式。A pair of shoes was on the desk．
并列主语如果指的是同一个人、同一事物或同一概念时, 谓语动词用单数形式, 这时and后面的名词没有冠词。例如:
Truth and honesty is the best policy．
The girl’s teacher and friend is a young doctor．
To love and to be loved is the great happiness.
Going to bed early and getting up early is a good habit.
A knife and fork is on the table.
当主语后面跟有as well as, as much as , no less than, along with, with, like, rather than, together with, but, except, besides, including, in addition to等引导的词组时, 其谓语动词的单、复数按主语的单、复数而定。例如:
The teacher as well as the students was excited．
The room with its furniture was rented．
A (great) number of修饰可数复数名词, 谓语动词用复数; a great deal of,a large amount of 修饰不可数名词, 其短语作主语时, 谓语动词用单数。
关系代词who, that, which等在定语从句中作主语时, 其谓语动词的数应与句中先行词的数一致。例如:
Those who want to go please sign your names here．
Some of the energy that is used by man comes from the sun．
季节、月份、星期、节日、假日、一日三餐、学科名称，球类、棋类名词名称前一般不加冠词。
1/2 one(a) half 1/4 one(a) quarter
形容词的顺序：
系动词be，grow，get，become，feel，appear，prove，seem，look，keep，smell，taste，sound，turn，remain限定词 数量形容词(序数词在前，基数词在后) 性状形容词 大小、长短、高低等形体 新旧 颜色 国藉 材料
Those three beautiful large square old brown wood table
某些以a-开首的形容词例如：afraid，alike，alone，asleep，awake, alive 等只能作表语,不能作定语。
某些以-ly结尾的词是形容词而不是副词：friendly，lively， lovely，lonely，likely，deadly，silly，orderly, timely等。
1)close接近地 closely仔细地，密切地
2)free 免费地 freely自由地,无拘束地
3)hard努力地 hardly几乎不
4)late 晚，迟 lately近来
5)most 极,非常 mostly主要地
6)wide广阔地，充分地 widely广泛地
7)high高 highly高度地，非常地
8)deep深，迟 deeply抽象意义的“深”
9)loud大声地 loudly大声地(含有喧闹的意思)
10)near邻近nearly几乎
bad/ill,badly worse worst little less least
表示一方不及另一方时，用“less＋原级＋than”的结构表示：This room is less beautiful than that one．
表示一方超过另一方的程度或数量时，可在比较级前加表示程度的状语，如：even，a lot，a bit，a little，still，much，far, yet, by far等修饰：He works even harder than before．
注意:by far 通常用于强调最高级。用于比较级时,一般放在比较级的后面, 如放在前面,应在二者中间加“the”。
He is taller by far than his brother.
He is by far the taller of the two brothers.
某些以-or结尾的形容词进行比较时，用to代替than。superior，junior，senior等。
He is superior to Mr Wang in mathematics．
在比较从句中为了避免重复通常用that(those)，one(ones)代替前面出现的名词。that指物，one既可指人，也可指物。that可代替可数名词单数和不可数名词，而one只能代替可数名词。例如：
The book on the table is more interesting than that on the desk．
A box made of iron is stronger than one made of wood．
表示倍数的比较级有如下几种句型:
A is three (four,etc.) times the size (height, length, width,etc) of B.
The new building is four times the size (the height) of the old one.
这座新楼是那座旧楼的四倍大(四倍高)。［高三倍］
A is three (four, etc.) times as big (high, long, wide, etc.) as B.
Asia is four times as large as Europe.亚洲是欧洲的四倍大。
A is three (four,etc.) times bigger (higher, longer, wider) than B.
例如:Your school is three times bigger than ours.
你们的学校比我们的学校大三倍。
表示两倍可以用 twice 或 double。
表示“最高程度”的形容词，如excellent，extreme，perfect等，没有最高级，也不能用比较级。
如果复数名词前有many、few，不可数名词前有much、little等表示量的形容词时，该用so而不用such。如：
I’ve had so many falls that I’m black and blue all over.
Mr White got so little money a month that he could hardly keep body and soul together.
但little不表示数量而表示“小”的意思时,仍用such。如:
They are such little children that the they cannot clean the house by themselves.
6)almost与nearly
在very, pretty, not后用nearly, 不用almost。例如：
I’m not nearly ready.
在any, no, none, never前用almost, 不用nearly。例如：
I almost never see her.
need 表示“需要”或“必须”,作情态动词时,仅用于否定句或疑问句中。在肯定句中一般用must, have to, ought to或should 代替。例如：
You needn’t come so early.
Need I finish the work today? －－Yes, you must.
注意：needn’t have done“表示本来不必做某事而实际上做了某事”。例如：You needn’t have waited for me.
“should have done”表示应该做到而实际上没有做到。
You should have started earlier.
“ought to have done”表示过去应做某事而实际未做。
You ought to have helped him (but you didn’t)
书报的标题,小说等情节介绍常用一般现在时。
表示感觉,愿望和状态的某些动词如have, be, hear, see, like等词一般不用进行时。
有些动词形式上是主动结构,但表示被动的意思。常见的有可和 well, easily 等副词连用的不及物动词sell,wash,write,read,clean,cook等。例如：
The cloth washes well.这布很经洗。
The new product sells well.这新产品很畅销。
The pen writes well.这支笔很好写。
在动词 arrange,command, demand, desire,insist, order,propose, request, require, suggest等后面的宾语从句中用“(should)＋ 动词原形”(虚拟语气)例如：
We suggested that we (should) have a meeting.
We insisted that they (should) go with us.
The doctor ordere
篇6：虚拟语气讲义
一、考点聚焦
1、虚拟语气用于条件状语从句中
（1）表示与现在事实相反的假设，条件状语从句中的谓语动词用“过去式（be动词的过去式用were）”，而主句中的谓语动词用“would / should/ could / might 动词原形”。如：
If I were a boy, I would join the army.
If the had time, she should go with you.
（2）表示与过去的事实相反，条件状语从句中的谓语动词用过去完成时，主句中的谓语动词则用“would / should / might / could have 过去分词”。如：
If he had taken my advice, he would have succeeded in the competition.
（3）表示与将来事实相反，条件状语从句中的谓语动词一般过去时或should(were to) 动词原形，而主句中的谓语动词则用would / should/
could might 动词原形。如；
If it were to rain tomorrow, the football match would be put off.
（4）当条件状语从句表示的行为和主句表示的行为所发生的时间不一致时，动词的形式要根据它所表示的时间作相应调整。如：
If they had worked hard, they would be very tired.(从句说的是过去，主句指的是现在)
以下表格是虚拟语气用于条件状语从句中时，主句和从句谓语动词的形式：
条件状语从句 主 句
与过去事实相反 had 过去分词 should /would/could/might have 过去分词
与现在事实相反 一般过去时(be用were) would/should/could/might 动词原形
与将来事实相反 一般过去时或should(were to) 动词原形 Would/should/cold/might 动词原形
有时侯在使用时可省略if,句子则可换成下列形式，即“were / had / should 主语”。如：
Were I a boy, I would join the army.
Had he taken my advice, he would have succeeded.
Were it not for the expense, I would go to Britain.
2、虚拟语气用于名词性从句
（1）虚拟语气在宾语从句中的运用。
①“wish 宾语从句”表示不能实现的愿望，译为“要是……就好了”等。表示现在不能实现的愿望，从句中的谓语动词用一般过去时；表示将来不能实现的愿望，从句中的谓语动词用“would/could 动词原形”；表示过去不能实现的愿望，从句中的谓语动词用“had 过去分词”或“could(should) have 过去分词”。如：
I wish it were spring all the year round.
I wish I had known the answer.
I wish I could fly like a bird.
②在表示建议、要求、命令等的动词suggest、advise、propose、demand、require、insist request、command、order等后的宾语从句中，谓语动词用should 动词原形或是动词原形。如：
She suggested we (should)leave here at once.
The doctor ordered she should be operated.
（2）虚拟语气在同位语从句和表语从句中的运用。
作表示建议、要求、命令等的名词advise、idea、order、demand、plan、proposal、suggestion、request等的表语从句和同位语从句，从句中的谓语动词用“（should） 动词原形”。如：
His suggestion that we (should)go to Shanghai is wonderful.
My idea is that they (should)pay 100 dollars.
（3）虚拟语气在主语从句中的运用。
在主语从句中，谓语动词的虚拟语气用“should 动词原形”的结构，表示惊奇、不相信、理应如此等。如：
It is necessary(important, natural, strange, etc.)that we should clean the room every day.
It was a pity (a shame, no wonder, etc.)that you should be so careless.
It will be desired(suggested, decided, ordered, requested, proposed, etc.)that she should finish her homework this afternoon.
注意：这种从句表示的是事实。如果说人对这种事实表现出惊奇的情感，就可用虚拟语气。反之，如果不表示惊奇等情感，that从句也可用陈述句语气。如：
It is pity that you can’t swim.
3、虚拟语气在其他场合的运用
（1）虚拟语气在as if/as though、even if/even though等引导的表语从句或状语从句中，如果从句表示的动作发生在过去，用过去完成时；指现在状况，则用一般过去时；指将来状况则用过去将来时。如：
He did it as if he were an expert.
Even if she were here, she could not solve the problem.
（2）虚拟语气用于定语从句中。
这种从句常用于句型“It is (high)time (that) … ”中，定语从句的谓语动词用一般过去时(be用were)或should 动词原形，意思是“(现在)该……”。如：
It’s time that I picked up my daughter.
It’s high time we were going.
（3）虚拟语气用在if only引导的感叹句中。如：
If only I were a bird.
If only I had taken his advice.
（4）虚拟语气在一些简单句中的运用。
①情态动词的过去式用于现在时态时，表示说话人谦虚、客气、有礼貌或语气委婉，常出现在日常会话中。如：
It would be better for you not to stay up too late.
Would you be kind enough to close the door?
②用于一些习惯表达法中。如：
Would you like a cup of tea?
I would rather not tell you.
二、精典名题导解
选择填空
1. When a pencil is partly in a glass of water, it looks as if it _______. (NMET 95)
A.breaks B.has broken C.were broken D.had been broken
解析：答案为C。本题考查的是as if 引导的让步状语从句中的语气问题，as if引导的状语从句如果与事实一致，不用虚拟语气，如果与事实相反，应用虚拟语气。题中“当铅笔的一部分浸在水中，铅笔看上去好像断了”。而实际上铅笔并未断，与事实相反，前半部分陈述是一般现在时，因而本句是对一般现在时的虚拟，用were broken。
2. I didn’t see your sister at the meeting. If she ___________, she would have met my brother.(NMET 94)
A.has come B.did come C.came D.had come
解析：答案为D。本题考查的是if条件句中的虚拟语气。题意是：我在会议上没看到你姐姐，故你姐姐没来。因此如果“她来了”与事实相反，前面一句交代了虚拟语气的时态是一般过去时的虚拟，所以if从句中用had 过去分词。
3. -If he ___________, he ________that food.
-Luckily he was sent to the hospital immediately.(NMET 93)
A.was warned; would not take
B.had been warned; would not have taken
C.would be warned; had not taken
D.would have been warned; had not taken
解析：答案为B。本题考查的是条件状语从句与主句表示与事实相反时虚拟语气的用法。根据下一句语境可知，他事先并没有得到警告，表示过去时间的虚拟语气，故选B。
虚拟语气专项练习
1．Were it not for the snowy weather, we __________all right.
A. would be B. would have been C. were D. may be
2. ________more careful, his ship would not have sunk.
A. If the captain were B. Had the captain been
C. Should the captain be D. If the captain would have been
3. If he _________ me tomorrow, I would let him know.
A. should call B. should not have been able
C. were not able D. are not able
4. If you asked your father, you ______________ permission.
A. may get B. might get C. should have called D. maybe get
5. _____________today, he would get there by Friday.
A. Would he leave B. was he leaving
C. Were he to leave D. If he leaves
6. ______I you, I would go with him to the party.
A. Was B. Had been C. Will be D. Were
7. The millions of calculations involved, had they been done by hand, __________all practical value by the time they were finished.
A. could lose B. would have lost
C. might lose D. ought to have lost
8. Had Paul received six more votes in the last election, he ____________our chairman now.
A. must have been B. would have been C. were D. would be
9. If you ________________Jerry Brown until recently, you’d think the photograph on the right was strange.
A. shouldn’t contact B. didn’t contact
C. weren’t to contact D. hadn’t contacted
10. ____________he English examination I would have gone to the concert last Sunday
A. In spite of B. But for C. Because of D. As for
11. Look at the terrible situation I am in! If only I _____________your advice
A. follow B. would follow C. had followed D. have followed
12. Had Paul received six more votes in the last election, he ____________our chairman now.
A. must have been B. would have been
C. were D. hadn’t contacted
13. If the horse won today, it _____________ thirty races in five years.
A. would have won B. won C. must have won D. did have won
14. There is a real possibility that these animals could be frightened, _______a sudden loud noise.
A. being there B. should there be
C. there was D. there having been
17. I would have gone to visit him in the hospital, had it been at all possible, but I ______ fully occupied the whole of last week.
A. were B. had been C. have been D. was
18. I apologize if I __________ you, but I assure you it was unintentional(无意的).
A. offend B. had offended
C. should have offended D. might have offended
19. If you hadn’t taken such a long time to get dressed, we’d______________ there by now.
A. be B. circles C. is circling D. be circling
20. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west, so it seems as if the sun ________round the earth.
A. were circling B. circles C. is circling D. be circling
21. I wish that I _______________ with you last night.
A. went B. have gone C. could go D. could have gone
22. I wish I ___________ with her.
A. would be B. am C. was D. were
23. I wish that I_____________ the concert last night.
A. could B. have attended C. could have attended D. attended
24. The picture exhibition bored me to death. I wish I_______________ to it.
A. had not gone B. have not gone
C. did not go D. can not have gone
25. “I wish you___________ me to put these things away,” he said.
A. will help B. help C. are helping D. would help
26. If the Watergate Incident_____________ Nixon would not have resigned from the presidency.
A. did not occur B. had not occurred C. was not occurring D. be circling
27. I hadn’t expected ________James to apologize but I had hoped .
A. him calling me B. that he would call me
C. him to call me D. that he call me
28. George would certainly have attended the meeting, ____________________ .
A. if he didn’t get a flat tire B. if the flat tire hadn’t happened
C. had he not had a flat tire D. had the tire not flattened itself
29. The teacher suggested that her students _____________ experiences with ESP.
A. write a composition on their B. to write composition about the
C. wrote some compositions of his or her D. had written any compositions for his
30. He speaks Chinese as fluently as if he ______________a Chinese.
A. were B. had been C. is D. has been
31. As usual, he put on a show as though his trip____ a great success.
A. had been B. has been C. were D. was
32. Looking round the town, he felt as though he ______________ away for ages.
A. has been B. was C. is D. had been
33. John is so strongly built that he looks as if he ______as elephant.
A. lifts B. is lifting C. lifted D. could lift
34. He described the town as if he_____________ it himself.
A. had seen B. has seen C. saw D. sees
35. At that thought he shook himself, as though he _____________from an evil dream.
A. woke B. wakes C. would wake D. had woke
36. Most insurance agents would rather you ___________ anything about collecting claims until they investigate the situation.
A. do B. don’t C. didn’t D. didn’t do
37. Although most adopted persons want the right to know who ______________their natural parents are, some who have found them wish that they the experience of meeting.
A. hadn’t B. didn’t have had C. hadn’t had D. hadn’t have
38. It is important that the TOEFL office ________ your registration.
A. will confirm B. confirm C. confirms D. must confirm
39. without electronic computers, much of today’s ___________advanced technology.
A. will not have been achieved B. have not been achieved
C. would not have been achieved D. had not been achieved
40. He speaks Chinese as fluently as if he ____________a Chinese.
A. were B. had been C. is D. has been
41. It is time that the government ______________measures to protect the rare birds and animals.
A. takes B. took C. has taken D. taking
42. Some people are too particular about school records, insisting that every applicant ___all diplomas from elementary school to university.
A. has B. will have C. should have D. must have
43. He was very busy yesterday, otherwise he _____ to the meeting.
A. would come B. came C. would have come D. had come
44. I must say he reads very well, and I shouldn’t be surprised if he___________ acting for a living one day.
A. had taken up B. takes up C. have taken up D. would have taken up
45. If I had seen the movie, I ______________ you all about it now.
A. would tell B. will tell C. have told D. would have told
46. I hadn’t expected ______Henry to apologize but I had hoped .
A. him to call me up B. him calling me up
C. that he would call me up D. that he will call me
47. I had hoped that John ____________a year in Africa, but he stayed there only for three months.
A. spends B. spent C. would spend D. will spend
48. I had hoped that Jennifer___________ a doctor, but she wasn’t good enough at science.
A. will become B. became C. would become D. becomes
49. I’d rather you ___________ anything about it for the time being.
A. do B. didn’t do C. don’t D. didn’t
50. I’d just as soon_______ rudely to her.
A. that you won’t speak B. you not speaking
C. you not speak D. you didn’t speak
51. It’s high time they____________ this road.
A. mend B. mended C. must have mended D. will mend
52. It’s about time people______ notice of what women did during the war.
A. take B. took C. have taken D. will take
53. Everybody has arrived. It’s time we___________ the class.
A. shall start B. would start C. had started D. start
54. ___________ the English examination I would have gone to the concert last Sunday.
A. In spite of B. But for C. Because of D. As for
55. Mary ___my letter; otherwise she would have replied before now.
A. has received B. ought to have received
C. couldn’t have received D. shouldn’t have received
56. John did not feel well yesterday; otherwise he _______to see his classmates off.
A. came B. would come C. would have come D. should be coming
57. He’s working hard for fear that he_____________ .
A. should fall behind B. fell behind
C. may fall behind D. would fall behind
58. Without the dreams of the youth, this invention might____________ for a century.
A. have been postponed B. has been postponed
C. postpone D. be postponed
59. In the past men generally preferred that their wives_______________ in the home.
A. worked B. would work C. work D. were working
60. For a child to give up his less mature idea for a more mature one, it requires that the child _____psychologically ready for the new idea.
A. is B. were C. be D. would be
61. Tom’s father, as well as his mother,_______________ in New York for a few days more.
A. ask him to stay B. ask he to stay
C. asks he stays D. asks he stay
62. Your advice that_____________ till next week is reasonable.
A. she waits B. she wait C. wait she D. she waited
64. It was essential that we lease before the end of the month.
A. sing B. singed C. had signed D. were signing
65. It is appropriate that some time ______thorough study of the results of the Apollo mission.
A. devotes to B. devoted to C. is devoted to D. be devoted to
答案与详解
1．A．条件句表示与现在事实相反的虚拟。
2．B．条件句表示与过去事实的虚拟。
3．A．条件句表示与未来事实的虚拟。
4．B．条件句表示与未来事实的相反。
5．C．条件句表示与现在事实的虚拟。
6．D．条件句表示与现在事实的虚拟。
7．B．这个句子中含有一个省略if，把助动词提前到主语they之前的虚拟条件句，该条件句表示对过去情况的假设，而主句中by the time they were finished 表明主句也应该是对过去发生的情况的假设，因而应该选（B）would have lost为正确答案。
8．（D）这道题目是一个混合虚拟语气的句子。条件句省略了if，把助词had提前到主语前面，表示对过去情况的假设，而主句中now表明了对现在情况的假设，所以应选would(should, could, might) 动词原形这种表达形式。四个选项中只有（D）是正确表达形式，故为正确答案。
9．（D）until recently，因此（D）是正确答案，而主句是隐含的对现在情况的假设，该句是一个混合虚拟条件句。
10．（B）假设的情况有时不是用一个条件句表示，而是隐含在一个由介词如but for、but that、without, 由连词but、副词otherwise 、比较级、形容词、独立主格等表示的上下文中。本句主句表示对过去情况的假设，但事实上由于英语考试而没有去成，即若不是因为英语考试，我本可以去听音乐会，所以应选But for为正确答案。
11．（C）题目中的7：合同法讲义
课程介绍
课程性质：专业基础课
课程要求：掌握我国合同法的主要制度，了解合同法的基本理论，具体——
掌握合同的订立、合同的生效、合同的主要条款、合同的履行、合同纠纷解决、合
同责任等方面的规则
知晓合同纠纷的解决途径和方法，学会运用合同法律制度保护自己的合法权益。
第1章 合同与合同法概述
本章基本要求：了解合同的概念、分类，理解合同法的概念、性质、法律渊源和发
展
各节内容：
第一节 合同概述
第二节 合同法概述
本章重点：合同法的性质及基本原则
本章难点：合同自由原则
第1节 合同概述
一、合同的含义及特征
第二条 本法所称合同是平等主体的自然人、法人、其他组织之间设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系的协议。
1．主体：两人以上
2．民事法律行为
3．双方或多方平等主体意思表示一致的结果
4．合法性、确定性、可履行性
二、合同的分类
（一）双务合同与单务合同
1、划分标准：一方享有合同权利是否同时承担合同义务
2．区分意义
（1）履行合同义务的顺序
（2）风险负担
（3）违约责任
（二）有偿合同与无偿合同
1、划分标准：一方取得合同权利是否偿付相应代价
2．区分意义
（1）主体资格有无特别规定
（2）确定合同性质
（3）债务人的注意义务
（4）合同效力
（5）能否适用善意取得
3．与双务、单务合同的区别
（三）诺成合同与实践合同
非要物合同与要物合同
1．划分标准：是否以标的物的实际交付为要件
2．此种分类存在的问题
（1）交付的作用：成立要件 生效要件
（2）具体合同的划分
主要依据：法律规定，并非自身性质决定
（四）要式与不要式
1．划分标准：法律是否要求以特定形式或程序为要件
2．区分意义
“形式”的作用：成立要件生效要件没啥用
基本精神：不轻易因形式问题使合同归于无效，除非法律另有明确规定 （五）主合同与从合同
1．划分标准：是否可独立存在
2．划分意义
（六）束己合同与涉他合同
1．划分标准：是否涉及第三人利益
基础理论：合同的相对性
2．区分意义
第三人是否接受
（七）有名合同与无名合同
1、区分标准：法律是否规定名称和相应的规范
2、区分意义：适用规则的方法不同
有名合同：直接适用相应规范
无名合同：（1）总则；（2）最相类似有名合同的规范
3．转化
（八）本合同与预约合同
1．划分标准：合同的订立是否有事先约定
2．划分意义
（九）格式合同与非格式合同
1．划分标准：合同条款的内容是否由双方协商确定
格式合同特点、缺点：
2．划分意义
（1）合同条款效力：当双方权利义务不平衡时
（2）合同条款解释：当对合同理解存在分歧时
第2节 合同法概述
一、合同法的含义
调整平等主体之间基于合同而发生的财产流转关系的法律规范的总称
动态的财产关系
合同法 《合同法》
二、合同法的调整对象
1．并非所有合同均受《合同法》调整
第2条 ……婚姻、收养、监护等有关身份关系的协议，适用其他法律的规定。2．合同关系的内容
3．合同法适用的时间
二、合同法的调整对象
1．并非所有合同均受《合同法》调整
第2条 ……婚姻、收养、监护等有关身份关系的协议，适用其他法律的规定。2．合同关系的内容
3．合同法适用的时间
三、合同法的基本原则
（一）意思自治原则
第4条 当事人依法享有自愿订立合同的权利，任何单位和个人不得非法干预。
1．内容
2．“非法干预”
（二）平等原则
第3条 合同当事人的法律地位平等，一方不得将自己的意志强加给另一方。
1．内容
（1）任何一方不享有特权
（2）维护债权的权利平等
（3）违约，平等地承担责任
（4）不得强加意志
（三）公平原则
第5条 当事人应当遵循公平原则确定各方的权利和义务。
1．公平原则的意义
对自由原则的限制
2．含义
（1）形式公平
（2）实质公平
（四）诚实信用原则
第6条 当事人行使权利、履行义务应当遵循诚实信用原则。
1．意义
2．含义
3．具体要求
（五）合法原则与公序良俗原则
第7条 当事人订立、履行合同，应当遵守法律、行政法规，尊重社会公德，不得
扰乱社会经济秩序，损害社会公共利益。
1．合法原则
遵守法律、行政法规中的强制性规定
2．公序良俗
第2章 合同的成立
本章基本要求：熟悉合同订立的两个基本阶段
各节内容：
第一节 合同订立的程序
第二节 合同成立与合同的形式
第三节 合同的条款（主要内容）
第四节 缔约过失责任
本章重点：要约、承诺的规则
本章难点：缔约过失责任
第1节 合同订立的程序
一、要约/发盘
（一）含义
第14条 要约是希望和他人订立合同的意思表示……
1．内容具体确定 2．向特定人发出 3．明确表达的订立合同的意思表示（三）要约的效力 1．效力内容 （1）对要约人 （2）对受要约人 2．效力期间 （1）效力期间的作用 （2）效力开始到达 以实物为载体 电子数据形式 （3）效力期限 （四）要约的撤回与撤销 1．要约的撤回 在要约生效之前或生效之时使其不生效 2．要约的撤销 已生效的要约，使之丧失法律效力 第18条 要约可以撤销。撤销要约的通知应当在受要约人发出承诺通知之前到达受要约人。 第19条 有下列情形之一的，要约不得撤销： （一）要约人确定了承诺期限或者以其他形式明示要约不可撤销； （二）受要约人有理由认为要约是不可撤销的，并已经为履行合同作了准备工作。 （五）要约的消灭 二、承诺/接受 （一）含义 （二）有效承诺的构成要件 1．主体：受要约人向要约人做出 2．内容一致 （1）实质内容一致 （2）对非实质性内容的变更 （3）对非实质性内容的变更使承诺无效的情形 3．在要约有效期内到达要约人 （1）逾期：视为新要约 例外：要约人及时通知该承诺有效 （2）本不会逾期但实际上逾期：仍有效 例外：要约人及时通知因承诺超过期限而不接受 4．承诺做出的方式 （1）通常要求：通知 （2）特殊情况：行为 5．承诺通知的传递方式 要约未规定：与要约传递速度相同或更快的方式传递
1．法律效力的内容 第25条 承诺生效时合同成立。 2．承诺生效的时间 第26条 承诺通知到达要约人时生效。 承诺不需要通知的，根据交易习惯或者要约的要求作出承诺的行为时生效。 采用数据电文形式订立合同的，承诺到达的时间适用本法第16条第2款的规定。 （四）承诺的撤回与撤销 1、可否撤回 第27条 承诺可以撤回。 撤回承诺的通知应当在承诺通知到达要约人之前或者与承诺通知同时到达要约人。 2、可否撤销
第2节 合同的成立与形式
一、概述
（一）合同的成立
1．含义：双方就合同内容达成一致意思表示，产生权利义务关系
与“合同订立”的关系：
2．合同成立的意义：探讨双方之间权利义务关系的前提
（二）合同的形式
1．含义：当事人合意的表现形式，是合同内容的外在表现，是合同内容的载体 2．分类
（1）法定形式
即要式合同
（2）口头形式
（3）书面形式
（4）默示形式：行为
二、合同成立的时间和地点
（一）原则
承诺生效的时间、地点
（二）不同形式合同的成立
1、合同书形式：签字或盖章时、地
2、确认书：签订时
（三）关于合同成立的特殊规定
第36条 法律、行政法规规定或者当事人约定采用书面形式订立合同，当事人未采
用书面形式但一方已经履行主要义务，对方接受的，该合同成立。
第37条 采用合同书形式订立合同，在签字或者盖章之前，当事人一方已经履行主
要义务，对方接受的，该合同成立。
第3节 合同的内容
一、合同的主要条款
（一）概述
（二）主要条款
1、名称：主体，确定当事人
2、标的：权利义务指向对象
